Tolerating Those Weak in Faith…

Over the last three weeks, we have been examining the mythology of Mark's Gospel. We concluded last week by noting that "the Evangelist probably owes far more to Paul than he does to the original followers of Jesus" (Elmer, 2007). I would even go so far as to argue that Mark is a Paulinist; that he presents Jesus in terms that reflect Paul's Law-free Christianity. Why might this be?

The most likely reason is that Mark is the product of a Pauline community, traditionally associated with the church in Rome. So, today, we will begin a new series looking at the origins of the Church in Rome. This will provide a platform for further discussion of the Gospel of Mark and its reception in the earliest communities of the Jesus movement. Moreover, this series will explore the nascent Roman church that will, in time, come to define for those of us in the Western church what it means to be "Christian".

Our earliest source of information about Roman Christianity is derived from Paul's letter to the Christians in Rome (58 CE). Romans is unique in the Pauline corpus, in that it was written to a community whom Paul had never visited. Moreover, unlike most of Paul's previous letters (e.g., Galatians, 1 and 2 Corinthians, and Philippians), this letter is not primarily concerned with local problems. This does not mean that Paul was either uninformed or uninterested in the specific challenges faced by the Christian community at Rome.

Paul speaks of having "desired for many years" to visit the Christians in Rome (15:23; cf. 1:11-13), whose reputation for faith has spread "throughout the whole world" (1:8). More-to-the-point, the specific greetings Paul details in chapter 16 suggest that Paul can name certain members of the Roman community with whom he had a prior acquaintance and/or relationship from elsewhere in his missionary travels (16:3-16). Most commentators also nominate the section of the letter dealing with the weak and the strong (14:1-15:13), along with others passages (11:17-25; 12:3, 16; 16:17-20) dealing with divisions within the Roman community, as a clear indications that Paul was well apprised of circumstances in Rome.

Roman Christianity at the Time of Paul's Writing…

We do not know the circumstances in which the Jesus movement first came to Rome. All we know is that the movement appears to have been well-established in the city at the time Paul wrote (15:23; cf. 1:8-13). We can deduce from Romans 16 that Paul knew of at least five house churches in the city. There is the church that met in the house of Prisca and Aquila (16:5) and two others belonging to the households of Aristobulus and Narcissus (16:10-11), as well as two groups greeted separately in 16:14-15. There may have been several further congregations, of whom Paul was unaware.

J. D. G. Dunn observes that relatively few of those named in the final greetings in chapter 16 bear specifically Roman names, which is noteworthy in that more than half the names recovered from the Jewish catacombs in Rome are Latin (1988: lii). Moreover, we must observe that many of those named in chapter 16 appear to have been people whom Paul had met previously in the course of missionary endeavours. Prisca and Aquila were formally collaborators with Paul in the Gentile mission at Corinth and Ephesus (Acts 18:2-3, 18-21; 1 Cor 16:19); a fact Paul highlights in Romans 16:3, when he speaks of the 'debt of gratitude' owed to them by the Gentile churches. The name of Urbanus attracts a similar appellation as a "fellow-worker in Christ" (16:9).

The Church of St Paul Outside the Walls in Rome

Others in this list include people whom Paul himself had probably converted to the Gentile mission. Paul describes Epaenetus, Ampliatus and Starchys as friends (16:5, 9), and Epaenetus is singled out as "the first convert to Christ in the province of Asia"(16:5). Rufus is reported as one "chosen by the Lord", and his mother is described in terms that suggest that she had formally offered hospitality to Paul (16:15). Since Paul had yet to visit Rome, we can safely assume that Rufus and his mother had been "chosen" and offered service to Paul during his travels in Greece or Asia Minor. Therefore, it seems that Paul, who was reliant on only second-hand information about the Roman communities, probably knew only a relatively small proportion of the overall membership of the house churches in the city.

Paul's partial knowledge of Roman Christianity may have been further exacerbated by the fact that the movement in Rome was far from homogenous. Significant here is the fact that contrary to his usual practice (1 Thess 1:1; 1 Cor 1:2; 2 Cor 1:1; Phil 4:15), Paul never addresses the Roman devotees as a single church. This suggests, not only that the movement was probably too large to gather in a single house, but also that the house churches in Rome had grown up as manifold institutions.

Commentators generally explain this by arguing that, as elsewhere with the first congregations of believers in Jesus Messiah (eg. Jerusalem and Antioch), the movement at Rome probably emerged first as disparate groups affiliated with the various Jewish synagogues in Rome (Byrne, 1996). It is noteworthy in this respect that, while Paul addresses his Letter to the Gentiles (1:6, 13; 10:1-4; 11:13-32; 15:7-12, 15-16), he regularly quotes the Septuagint with an insouciance that bespeaks his readers' familiarity with the Jewish Scriptures (Dunn, 1988). Given that knowledge of the Septuagint was limited in Greco-Roman literature only to those texts that derived from Jewish circles, as J. J. Collins (1983) points out, it follows that Paul assumed his Gentile readership had formally enjoyed a close relationship with the Roman Jewish synagogues.

Similarly, the list of people greeted in Romans 16 includes, amongst the preponderance of Gentiles named, several others specifically designated as Jews (Andronicus, Junia, and Herodion - 16:7, 11) and some who were likely to have been Jews (Prisca and Aquila, Mary, Rufus and his mother - 16:3, 6, 13), which confirms the multi-ethnic character of the various house churches that constituted the movement at Rome.

The Weak and the Strong…

To pursue the issue of the fractured nature of Roman Christian communities further, it must be noted that many scholars see in Paul's discussion of the "weak" and the "strong" (14:1-15:13) echoes of a clash between Jewish and Gentile converts within the movement.

In this section of the letter Paul counsels those strong in faith to tolerate the foibles of the weak, who remain scrupulous about the consumption of meat and wine, and the observance of special days and festivals. Since the issues raised here could be related to Jewish food regulations and to the rituals of the Sabbath and the feast days laid down in the Hebrew Scriptures, it is possible that the epithets "weak" and "strong" might refer to Jews and Gentiles respectively.

More specifically, it has been proposed that these passages, along with others in Romans (eg. 11:17-25; 12:3, 16: 16:17-20), indicate a clear division within the Roman communities wrought by Gentile believers who despised and scorned their less liberated Jewish co-religionists (Watson, 1986). On this understanding, it seems then that Paul, aware of these problems, calls for tolerance and acceptance between the warring parties.

Corroboration for this line of speculation may be found in chapter 11, where Paul addresses the Gentile converts directly (11:13), explicitly admonishing the Gentiles not to be arrogant or boastful (11:18, 20, 25; cf. 12:3, 16) towards the Jews. He reminds them of the Jewish roots of their faith (11:16-17, 24), and expresses the hope that eventually all Israel will be saved once "the full number of Gentiles has come in" (11:25). In his closing remarks at the conclusion to the letter Paul again returns to the subject of internal discord, urging his readers "to greet one another with a holy kiss" and be wary of those who "cause dissension and offences in opposition to the teachings you have learned" (16:17). Paul adds a telling qualification to this last statement, identifying the dissenters as people who "do not serve our Lord Christ but their own stomaches" (16:18).

Paul makes comparable use of the term "stomach" in Philippians (3:19), where it is best understood as a polemic against his Christian-Jewish opponents. Therefore, it is likely that Paul had similar opponents in mind here in Romans. If such statements are meant to be specific to Rome, and not merely generalised warnings about the perennial threats to community cohesion, they do add weight to the argument for seeing Paul's comments on the weak and strong (14:1-15:13) as indicative of clear divisions between the Jewish and Gentile constituencies at Rome.

There are, however, a number of problems with this interpretation. First, it must be admitted that it is far from certain that Romans 14:1-15:13 refers specifically to two distinct groups that can be delineated on purely ethnic grounds. We have already noted the multi-ethnic character of the Roman congregations, so Paul could hardly have hoped to promote tolerance of the Jewish members of Rome's Christian communities by characterising them as "the weak in faith" (14:1) (Byrne, 1996).

Secondly, the dietary practices Paul attributes to this group (especially their abstention from wine and meat) are not those commonly attributed to Jews. Asceticism of this kind was common amongst various philosophical schools and pagan sects in Rome. The practice of vegetarianism, in particular, was associated with the first-century schools of Quintus Sextus and Musonius Rufus; and the Roman author Seneca adopted this practice under the influence of the philosopher Sotion (Seneca, Ep. 108:2).

Finally, the circumstances reflected in 11:17-25 and 14:1-15:13 do not speak of two equal and opposing groups. We must remind ourselves again that Paul's Letter to the Romans is addressed to Gentiles (1:6, 13; 11:13-32; 15:7-12, 15-16). Therefore, Paul's comments in 14:1-15:13 appear to be directed at a community predominantly composed of Gentiles who, in the interests of unity, must learn to tolerate and accept those few individuals who do not share the majority view regarding Jewish dietary and ritual practices (cf. 3:25-26; 4:16; 11:11-32; 15:27).

Who Are "The Strong" in Rome?

While Paul does not explicitly identify the strong and the weak as Gentiles and Jews respectively, he does identify himself with the strong (15:1-2). As one who has embraced a Law-free creed (7:1-25), Paul considers that he is one of the strong in faith, who is "fully convinced that no food is unclean in itself" (14:14). Since his arguments appeal to the traditional Jewish distinctions between "clean" and "unclean" foods, it follows that the specific issues at stake were the Jewish food laws in Leviticus (11:1-47; 22:1-30).

We noted earlier that it is likely that Roman Christianity originally grew out of Roman Judaism and, therefore, we must assume that some of its members (both ethic Jewish converts to the Christian movement and former Gentile God-fearers) continued to maintain contact with the Jewish synagogues in Rome. It is possibly also true, as F. Watson (1986) argues, that over scrupulous attitudes towards food and drink may have been a necessary precaution for these Christian-Jews who were denied access to meat and wine appropriate to the Jewish dietary requirements (94-98). Such a situation could plausibly have been the case for Jews and former Gentile God-fearers who lived outside the Roman Jewish community in the predominantly pagan quarters of the city.

If these assumptions are correct, then it seems that Paul's comments on the weak and the strong in Romans 14:1-15:13 are not concerned with an ethnic division between the Jewish and Gentile converts to the Christian movement per se. But rather, Paul's comments appear to be directed at a community predominantly composed of Gentiles (but also including some Jews), the majority of whom have embraced the Law-free faith-practice. His call to acceptance (14:1) is, therefore, best understood as a request made to the dominant group, both Jews and Gentile alike, to tolerate and accept those few individuals (again, probably both Jews and Gentiles) within the communities who continue to cling to their former, Jewish ritual and dietary practices.

Final Reflections…

Pope Benedict

I think that there is in the modern Church a situation analogous to that Paul confronts at Rome, especially in the wake of Pope Benedict's recent Motu Proprio on the Latin Mass. Earlier this year, Lawrence Downes (2007), a commentator with the New York Times, made the observation that the reintroduction of the Latin Mass may only serve to solidify divisions between "fundamentalists" and "liberals" already present in the Church.

"It's easy enough to see where this is going: same God, same church, but separate camps, each with an affinity for vernacular or Latin, John XXIII or Benedict XVI. Smart, devout, ambitious Catholics — ecclesial young Republicans, home-schoolers, seminarians and other shock troops of the faith — will have their Mass. The rest of us — a lumpy assortment of cafeteria Catholics, guilty parents, peace-'n'-justice lefties, stubborn Vatican II die-hards — will have ours. We'll have to prod our snoozing pewmates when to sit and stand; they'll have to rein in their zealots."

The return of the Latin Mass (assuming it is embraced with any enthusiasm) represents a retrograde step that can only lead to further division in the Church, or worse. Should there be a widespread revival of the Tridentine rite it will only serve to marginalise many who are already feeling left out — women, teens, and all the unordained.

This move seems to be yet one more example of the rise of Fundamentalism, which has infected most of the religious traditions. Fundamentalism is born of fear and frustration. It is a "fortress mentality" response to uncertainty and change. In a world defined by change, as ours is, Fundamentalists seek to "batten down the hatches" and "weather the storm".

One may, however, simply dismiss the return of the old "bells and smells" of the Latin Mass as a quaint anomaly in an uncertain world. But I fear it may also signal a dangerous lurch to the right, which can only spell more division among, and depletion of, the ranks of Catholicism. Perhaps, we may be lucky here in Australia.

For most Australian Catholics, I suspect the return of the Tridentine Mass is all just a colourful sideshow. Nevertheless, I think that it is important to hear afresh Paul's words of caution to the "Strong", not to dismiss or discriminate against the "Weak". To do so can only exacerbate our rapid slide into schism and/or dismemberment, a possibility of which I suspect Pope Benedict is well aware. It may be a far better course of action to grant concessions to a small but vocal group of Fundamentalists and reactionaries, rather than allow the Church to sunder irreparably.

Bibliography and Further Reading:
Byrne, B. (1996), Romans (SP 6; Collegeville: Liturgical Press).
Collins, J. J. (1983), Between Athens and Jerusalem: Jewish identity in the Hellenistic diaspora (New York: Crossroads).
Downes, L. (2007), "The Pope reopens a portal to eternity, via the 1950s" New York Times July 29. URL: http://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/29/opinion/29sun3.html?_r=2&em&ex=
1185940800&en=4ce8c6febe8dac36&ei=5087%0A&oref=slogin&oref=slogin
Dunn, J. D. G. (1988), Romans 1-8 (WBC 38A; Dallas: Word Books).
Elmer, I. J. (2007), "The mythology of Mark III: Understanding Jesus as rule breaker", Catholica Australia URL: http://www.catholica.com.au/ianstake1/063_it_101107.php
Watson, F. (1986), Paul, Judaism and the Gentiles: A sociological approach (SNTSMS 56; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).

Photo Credits:
"St Paul" A mosaic featuring St Paul is displayed over the chapel of the Basilica of St. Paul in Rome, Italy. Archaeologists have unearthed a sarcophagus containing what they believe are the remains of St Paul the Apostle. Time December 12 2006. URL: http://img.timeinc.net/time/daily/2006/0612/st_paul1212.jpg
"St Paul Outside the Walls" Rome, Italy. © 2007 Bible Places. URL: blog.bibleplaces.com/uploaded_images/c6717d50e892_DCC1/St_Paul_Outside_the_Walls_tb1119024734.jpg
"Staying the Course" © 2007 Thomas "Tab" Boldt The Calgary Sun URL: http://cagle.msnbc.com/news/PopeBenedict/images/tab%20copy.gif

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